1. The Work of German Propaganda

Directly after the German troops had marched into Warsaw, officials of the Reich Ministry of Public Education and Propaganda also moved into the newly conquered territories. Their task was to look after the German soldiers and also to keep the Polish inhabitants informed of political and military events through the media of the press, loudspeaker vans and posters.

Following the establishment of the General Government, these men, who had previously served in Litzmannstadt at the Reich Ministry of Propaganda's outpost for the occupied Polish territories, established the Division of Public Education and Propaganda at the offices of the District Chief in Warsaw. All the same responsibilities which the Reich Ministry of Public Education and Propaganda must discharge in the Reich were also incumbent upon these men here in the General Government. However, whereas the work of the Propaganda in the Reich is directed at people of the same racial strain, the ethnic structure of the General Government renders the conditions in this region completely different. Here, the work of the Propaganda Division is not directed only at Germans, it must also have the desired effect on Poles, Russians, Ukrainians and even Jews, and the unique mentality characterizing each individual ethnic group must be taken into account.

November 9th in Warsaw.

The District of Warsaw and its large capital city pose particularly difficult problems for the efforts of the Propaganda Division. In its role as capital of the former Republic of Poland, Warsaw had been the stronghold of the essence of Polishness, where all political and cultural means of leadership had been massed and concentrated. As well, the Jews, who accounted for a third of the entire population of Warsaw, had exerted a tremendously strong influence on intellectual, cultural and political life, so that public opinion had been thoroughly poisoned by years of such Jewish influence. In the interests of preventing further incitement of the Polish population against all things German, all anti-German printed matter clearly had to be taken out of circulation and all new publications examined prior to distribution.

Beyond that, it was also necessary to monitor Polish cultural life quite closely. Before the war there had been 10 large theaters, 1 opera house, 4 operetta establishments, and other stage entertainment institutions in Warsaw. All these theaters had been destroyed in the war. The people who had been involved in their operation quite naturally wished to resume their occupations, but obviously this could not be permitted without monitoring their material, since in the past, the stage in particular had served as platform from which to spew anti-German incitement of the worst kind.

The Division of Propaganda has carried out this difficult task most thoroughly. The unemployed artists whose past was found to be unobjectionable were very soon again able to work in their area of expertise. They received permits allowing them to work as singers, actors, booksellers etc.

In light of the hate-mongering to which the people had been subjected in the past, it was further necessary to keep a continual watch over the programs of the reopened entertainment houses and to rid them of the products of Jewish-Marxist mentality.

Particular care was devoted to active propaganda. Already in autumn 1939, political and military events had been announced to the people by means of loudspeaker vans, and in time stationary loudspeaker facilities were set up in Warsaw and the other cities of the District. A number of movie theaters for the Polish people were also gradually restored to working order.

To educate the entire populace, several large-scale information campaigns were launched – the "Anti-Typhus Campaign", the "Anti-Jewish Campaign", and "Operation V", to name a few – all of which had as their goal the education of the people in the most pressing current matters. For obvious reasons no details can be divulged at this time, whether pertaining to these campaigns per se or to the very interesting insights into the intellectual attitudes of large sectors of the Polish population, gained in the course of such campaigns.

The political care of the Germans was another chief responsibility of the German Division of Propaganda.

The temptations which the milieu of Warsaw represents for many Germans must not be underestimated. The peculiar lure of Polish coffee-shop life has made an impression on numerous Germans. To preclude the dangers which in this respect await the Germans living in Warsaw, it was necessary to provide opportunities for other kinds of diversion and entertainment and for cultural performances of higher value. But it was equally important to provide political education for and to instil National Socialist ideology in the ethnic Germans living in the General Government who had frequently been ideologically alienated from their German heritage by their exclusively Polish surroundings.

It goes without saying that the work of the Party was in the fore in all these endeavors, just as all measures in Warsaw have always been Party-oriented from the start.

The German ethnic Christmas celebrations of 1939, which were held in the by now traditional meeting place "Roma House", were the first visible evidence of a truly National Socialist community. At the end of January 1940 the General Government's first mass rally took place; the speaker was Division President Frauenfeld,

Ceremony in the forecourt of Palais Brühl.

the former Gauleiter^* of Vienna. The huge crowd at this rally, at which only part of the great many Germans and ethnic Germans managed to squeeze into the assembly hall, showed clearly how important it is to have renowned personalities from the Reich speak in the General Government. A subsequent major series of assemblies enabled the repeated addressing and ideological orientation of the Germans residing in this region. One of the high points was the ceremony of the Reich Labor Service on August 31, 1940, which was attended by more than 20,000 Germans

Governor Dr. Fischer inaugurates Adolf Hitler Square.

who had travelled from all parts of the District to take part. For many of the ethnic Germans living here, this impressive ceremony, carried out most effectively by the Reich Labor Service, was the first time they had ever witnessed a major rally in National Socialist style. The renaming of the largest square in Warsaw to "Adolf Hitler Square" on September 1, 1940, as well as a repetition of the Führer-Parade on October 5, 1940, on which occasion the parade street was renamed "Victory Avenue", were also state occasions which made great impressions on the public.

Aside from this political care, it was also necessary to stimulate and entertain the German populace intellectually.

The NS Reich Symphony Orchestra.   The Dresden Philharmonic performs in Warsaw.

The creation of a German theater was the focus of all such efforts. That this extraordinarily difficult task could actually be solved is a great achievement of cultural creativity in Warsaw which is discussed in greater detail elsewhere in this volume.

The intellectual care of the Germans residing in Warsaw was also seen to by engaging renowned German artists. Names such as Heinrich George, Wilhelm Kempff, Ellie Ney, Harald Kreuzberg, Ilse Meudtner, Margarete Teschemacher, Hilde Hildebrandt, Hans Wocke and Hans Friedrich Blunck show that intellectual and artistic performances of great caliber such as are also by no means everyday matters in the Reich were already given in Warsaw within a very short period of time. Eminent ensembles such as the Cologne Chamber Orchestra, the NS Symphony Orchestra, the Gewandhaus Quartet,

Evening with Professor Wilhelm Kempff.

the Dresden Philharmonic and the Philharmonic Orchestra of the General Government have given the many art lovers in Warsaw invaluable hours of profitable enjoyment.

A particular high point in the cultural life of the city are the "Warsaw Days of Culture" which are held annually in September and have gained popularity far beyond the boundaries of the District. The Berlin Schiller-Theater, with Heinrich George, gave a performance in the very first Days of Culture in 1940, staging "The Judge of Zalamea". An important exhibition, "German Achievements in the Vistula Region", two concerts by the Philharmonic Orchestra of the General Government, poetry readings by Karl HeinrichWaggerl, and several broadcasts by Reich Radio Breslau show how varied and broad in scope these Days of Culture were.

In 1941, the Days of Culture were again on a most ambitious scale. The festival production of Zerkaulen's "The Horseman", an evening of chamber music with the Gewandhaus Quartet of Leipzig, a poetry evening with Heinrich George, and readings by E. Wittek were some of the high points of those days. The contributions

Concert in the Castle at Wilanow.

of Assistant Department Head Hans Hinkel and his "Artist Troupe of Berlin", some of whose members are the most renowned stage, film and radio artists of our time, was a special gift from the Reich Minister of Public Education and Propaganda.

The "Palace Concerts at Wilanow", which are to become an annual tradition, were held for the first time in 1942. These ballet and concert evenings were held in the beautiful forecourt of that magnificent palace for six summer evenings and were

An evening of ballet in Wilanow.

consistently attended by thousands of ethnic Germans as well as Germans from the Reich. Even in their very first year, these splendid events were already an immensely valuable contribution to German cultural life in Warsaw.

Such presentations have enjoyed extensive support by the "German Cultural Association of Warsaw", established in 1942. The German Cultural Association is a society for the promotion of German cultural life and for the preservation of German monuments of culture in Warsaw. With state support, it is intended to provide financial assistance to existing cultural institutions such as the German Choir and the Symphony Orchestra of Warsaw. It will also facilitate, with financial contributions, special events which serve to maintain close ties to the cultural scene of the Reich, such as poetry readings, guest appearances by theater troupes from the Reich, exhibitions and the like. And finally, it is also intended to preserve and maintain as German cultural property the works of German architects and artisans, German painters, poets and authors, through the collection of their works and the written and pictoral analysis thereof, as well as by means of architectural maintenance where required.

Numerous Germans immediately accepted the Governor's invitation to join the Cultural Association. Thanks to extensive financial donations it has already been possible to secure the financial backing required for numerous cultural events.

The efforts of the Division of Propaganda have also devoted special care to German literature. As early as 1941, for example, a book exhibition titled "The Book and the Sword" was held in Warsaw in conjunction with a documentary presentation about the history of the Germans in Warsaw. This book fair was all the more important because, aside from the small libraries of the "German Club" and of the "German College Students' Association",

German bookstore in Warsaw.

there were neither large German libraries nor any German bookstores in Warsaw. The Alfred Rosenberg Book Fund laid the foundation for a chain of municipal libraries in the city and the District of Warsaw and also provided the opportunity for considerable related donations to the Wehrmacht. Private gifts also assisted in the establishment of the German bookstore on Cracow Street across from the "German House", which central location already renders it a prominent representative of German cultural will.

The Division of Propaganda has also produced some publications of its own, most notably the "Warschauer Kulturblätter" ["Warsaw Cultural Papers"] and Dr. Grundmann's "Führer durch Warschau" [="Guide to Warsaw"].

The motion picture media has been accorded a status commensurate with its great significance for the cultural care of the German populace. The most magnificent movie theater in the city, which had been renamed "Helgoland", was the first such institution to be made available to the Germans, opening its doors as early as December 1939. Two other movie theaters were soon also put into operation solely for the Germans, and screened the cream of the German movie crop only very shortly after their first showings. Movies also brightened the winter months for the Wehrmacht. The Division of Propaganda's movie vans braved adverse weather and the worst conceivable road conditions to reach the remote troop accommodations, where they brought much joy to the soldiers.

The entertainment and intellectual care of the troops has been one of Propaganda's most important responsibilities. Thousand of valuable books have been provided to the Wehrmacht, and special events have also been put on for entertainment purposes. A soccer game with Team Schalke 04, which more than 20,000 soldiers attended, and a major boxing tournament with well-known professional German boxers including Max Schmeling,^** no less deserve mention in this context than does the first Greater German Chess Tournament in the General Government, among whose participants were the world champion Aljechin and the former German champion Bogoljubow.

The intellectual care of the wounded was, of course, of paramount importance. Larger numbers of wounded have always been given a guest reception at all cultural events.

This extensive attention devoted to the Germans is completely in line with our overall policy, which attaches a completely different significance to the German East than had used to be the case. In the past, a transfer to the East had frequently been considered punishment, since the concept of "the East" involuntarily conjures up false images of a lack of culture, which owe their existence to misleading propagandistic allegations of cultural inferiority of the Reich's Eastern territories.

This misconception must be dispelled once and for all. And in a very few years it will indeed be a relic of the past; for the many opportunities for cultural activity and the enjoyment of cultural assets which have been created here in the East will soon disprove this once widely-held belief.

However, in the Polish Republic created by the dictates of Versailles, German theater was no longer accorded its previous significance; Poland looked mainly to Paris for inspiration, as that city was regarded by the Poles as the embodiment of utmost artistic perfection. As a result, with the exception of small circles of aficionados, German theater in Warsaw largely ceased to exist during the 20 years' existence of the Polish Republic.

It was thus very difficult to renew creative efforts in this field, since there was no existing tradition to take up. Nevertheless, German theater quickly sprung up again in Warsaw as well as throughout the General Government, and travelling stages advanced to the battle front immediately after the cease of hostilities in the District of Warsaw, hard on the heels of the tanks and cannons.

The names of Dreher, Oberland, Pless etc. still have meaning for any German soldier who was stationed in Poland in those early days; everyone still fondly remembers these travelling war-front stages because these were the first emissaries of culture which brought the welcome words of home to the German soldiers laboring in an alien environment, and thus brought them enjoyment and relaxation.

But these presentations were few and far between. The ultimate goal was to establish a German theater facility so as to have a permanent cultural center where German literature would find daily expression.

The men who acted as the General Government's pioneers in this area were Senior Administrative Councilor Ohlenbusch, then Head of the Division of Propaganda for the District of Warsaw and later Head of the Main Division of Propaganda for the General Government, and

The 1940 "Summer Shows" on the outdoor stage in Lazienki Park. (Stage set for "Das laute Geheimnis".)   Scene from Goethe's "Iphigenie auf Tauris".

the late Erich Claudius, Theater and Music Consultant to the District of Warsaw's Division of Propaganda. They were the ones who created the first German theater in the General Government: the "Summer Shows" in Belvedere Park, Warsaw.

Not far from Lazienki Castle, one of the most beautiful buildings in Warsaw, Polish kings had once had German architects construct an outdoor theater patterned on the ancient theater of Herculaneum. This old stage in Belvedere Park was restored to new life. Here, in the capital of the former Polish Republic, German actors spoke Goethe's immortal verses of "Iphigenie auf Tauris" to a German audience, performed Calderon's "Loud Secret" and Tirso de Molina's "Don Gil of the Breeches Green", and delighted with their presentations the thousands of spectators who were so lucky as to witness the unforgettable sight of a theater presentation in Belvedere Park during those summer evenings.

The Theater of Warsaw. The Theater of Warsaw, interior view. Scene from "The Judge of Zalamea", starring Heinrich George.

These "Summer Shows" fired the desire to have a permanent theater, and this was soon fulfilled: on October 6, 1940 the "Theater of Warsaw" opened its doors, and the "State Theater of the General Government" had already been established in Cracow shortly before.

The former "Teatr Polski", which had sustained only minor damage during the war, had been renovated and turned into this new theater, which was officially opened with a performance of Friedrich Hebbel's "Agnes Bernauer" in the presence of the Governor General himself. That very same month also saw a guest performance by Heinrich George and the Schiller Theater of Berlin, who treated the Germans to a brilliant production of "The Judge of Zalamea".

Shortly after that, the first Philharmonic Hall was inaugurated with performances of immortal works by Bach, Beethoven, Brahms and other great German men of musical genius, presented under the conductorship of Dr. Hans Rohr.

The guest performance by the Royal Opera Vitorio Emanuele of Florence, which presented an exquisite rendering of Cimarosa's opera "The Clandestine Marriage", must also be mentioned in this context.

The work of the Theater of Warsaw, with its own ensemble, began after these guest performances. Altogether 187 German performances were held in front of German audiences during the season of 1940–41. Some of the works presented included:

"Ein ganzer Kerl" [ = "An Upright Fellow"], comedy by Fritz Peter Buch;
"Der Vetter aus Dingsda" [="The Cousin From What's-its-Name"], operetta by Ed. Kunnecke;
"Die Fledermaus" [ = "The Bat"], operetta by Johann Strauss;
"Das Hahnenei" [="The Rooster's Egg"], comedy by Hans Fritz;
"Donna Diana", comedy by Don Augustin Moreta;
"Drei alte Schachteln" [="Three Old Women"], operetta by Walter Kollo;
"Kleine Parfumerie" [="The Little Perfumery"], comedy by Leo Lenz;
"Die Primanerin" [="The High School Senior"], comedy by Siegmunt Graff;
"Die lustige Witwe" [ = "The Merry Widow"], operetta by Franz Lehar;
"Die Frau ohne Kuss" [ = "The Unkissed Woman"], comedy musical by Walter Kollo;
"Marguerite: 3", comedy by Fritz Schwifert.

Stage set for "Die Fledermaus". Scene from "Egmont".

This listing shows that operettas and light entertainment constitute most of the repertoire, as is only natural. But the aforementioned performance of "Agnes Bernauer" by the State Theater on the occasion of the theater's opening ceremonies had pointed the way to more serious performances as well and had been the first acknowledgment of the obligation to also present classical drama. Accordingly, the season 1941–42 began this more solemn tradition with a performance of Goethe's "Egmont". Zerkaulen's "The Horseman", O. E. Groh's "The Flag", and "Follies of an Empress" by Dauthendey were also staged during this theater season. These weighty dramas show that the Theater of Warsaw is endeavoring to elevate its dramatic niveau. Presentations of further classical works are being planned.

Incidentally, the Theater of Warsaw does not perform only for Germans. Several evenings each week there are strictly Polish performances in which Polish actors perform for Polish audiences.

It would be premature at this point to pass final judgement on the Theater of Warsaw's work; it is as yet only being directed out of its infancy by theater manager Franz Nelkel. The same artistic niveau which a sophisticated theater audience is used to from performances on the great stages in Berlin, Munich or other German theater cities can clearly not be expected here. It would be unfair to apply the same standards of judgement.

But the fact that a German theater which almost nightly imparts the cultural treasures of home to an appreciative German public could be established here at all, and especially in the midst of the greatest war of our century, is one thing which must be universally acknowledged with respect.

The old saying that war silences the Muses no longer holds true in Germany today. German theater rising anew in Warsaw and throughout the entire General Government is the best possible proof of that.

^*[Trans. note:] Head of an administrative district ("Gau") of the German Reich. ..back...

^**[Trans. note:] Max Schmeling was the German Lightheavyweight Champion 1926–1928, European Lightheavyweight Champion 1927–1928, German Heavyweight Champion 1928, World Heavyweight Champion 1930–1932, and European Heavyweight Champion 1939–1943. ...back...

Warsaw Under German Rule
German Reconstruction and Development in the District of Warsaw